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Anthropological Schools: Evolution & Key Ideas

By Alejandro Ruiz

Anthropology, like most scientific disciplines, encompasses various schools of thought, not just one dominant approach. This article explores the most representative anthropological schools, comparing their core tenets and distinguishing features to highlight their commonalities and unique perspectives.

The 5 Main Anthropological Schools

These are the principal currents that have shaped the field throughout its historical development.

1. Evolutionism

Emerging in the late 19th century, evolutionism was one of the earliest anthropological schools, heavily influenced by Charles Darwin’s ideas on natural selection. These principles were applied to human societies through “social Darwinism,” positing that only the most adaptable groups survive and societies evolve through stages. This school rejected creationism, seeking scientific explanations for the origin and modification of human cultures.

Key Proponents:

  • Herbert Spencer: A prominent English intellectual, he adopted evolutionary theory to explain human communities, though he also intertwined it with Lamarckian ideas.
  • Edward Burnett Tylor: A British anthropologist who established foundational principles for cultural anthropology and comparative methods. He was a pioneer in quantitative, on-site field studies to draw ethnological conclusions.
  • Lewis Henry Morgan: Focused on kinship systems and developed a social evolution scale, classifying cultures from “savagery” (three degrees) to “barbarism” (three levels) and ultimately to “modern civilizations.”

2. The American School of Anthropology

This school arose after the United States’ independence, aiming to analyze human group behavior across the continent. It emphasizes in-depth cultural study and comparison across different human groups to assess contact and transmission. Proponents sought both similarities and differences for rigorous analysis of cultural areas, their expansion, and convergence.

Key Proponent:

  • Franz Boas: A leading figure and a major opponent of the emerging ideas of scientific racism, he championed detailed cultural analysis.

Key Areas of Study:

  • Biological Anthropology: Explored whether other species, particularly great apes, possess culture by establishing a precise definition of what constitutes “culture.”
  • Linguistic Anthropology: Studied language as a vital cultural element and a means to understand a people’s cultural history and thought structures.
  • Archaeological Studies: Gained significant importance as a method for anthropologists to extract information about cultural changes over time.

3. Diffusionist Anthropological School

Diffusionism is an anthropological current based on the principle of cultural diffusion. This theory posits that all cultures transmit traits to nearby ones, leading to constant inter-cultural exchange. Thus, the common use of a specific technique or object across several cultures must originate from one of them or an older, now-extinct culture with which they were in contact.

Key Concept:

  • Cultural Borrowing: The transfer of specific cultural elements from one culture to another, a continuous process throughout human history, though some cultures are more open to it than others.

Extreme Form:

  • Hyperdiffusionism: An extreme version of this theory that suggests a single, primal culture from which all others originated through cumulative small changes.

Key Proponent:

  • Friedrich Ratzel: Considered the father of anthropogeography (human geography), he championed diffusionism to challenge evolutionary ideas, arguing for constant cultural exchange over simultaneous cultural development.

4. The French Sociological School

Represented primarily by Émile Durkheim, the founder of academic sociology, this school asserts that social phenomena cannot be studied in isolation. Instead, they must be analyzed in perspective, considering all related elements. It champions the interconnectedness of cultural elements, which must be studied holistically for well-founded conclusions.

Key Proponent:

  • Marcel Mauss: Often considered the father of French ethnology, Mauss, like Durkheim, argued that anthropological concepts require context for researchers to understand their underlying causes.

Distinguishing Feature:

  • These scholars rejected direct comparison as a primary anthropological method, advocating that each culture be studied within its complete contextual framework.

5. Functionalist Anthropological School

Functionalism emphasizes the importance of each cultural part for the function it performs within society, collectively forming a universal system where every element holds significance. This approach emerged partly as a response to the diffusionist postulates.

Key Proponents:

  • Bronislaw Malinowski
  • Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown

Core Concept:

  • Social Structure: A key element in functionalism, positing that every function must be underpinned by a sustaining structure, which is crucial for anthropological studies.